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TAPIR SPECIALIST GROUP

Tapirs:
Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan
Published 1997

Status and Action Plan of the Mountain Tapir
(Tapirus pinchaque)
Continued from Previous Page

Action Plan

Introduction

Perhaps only 2500 mountain tapirs survive in the northern Andes. With current trends mountain tapirs may be extinct within one to two decades. Throughout its geographical range, the mountain tapir is rapidly losing ground as its sparsely distributed populations are hunted. Simultaneously, Andean cloud forests and páramo habitats are being destroyed or ecologically altered through burning, cultivation, and livestock grazing. Only about 12 separate areas have been identified where these mammals still occur (Fig. 2.1, Table 2.1); and in all of these areas populations and habitats are quickly disappearing. Remaining pockets containing mountain tapirs are often in the steepest and most inhospitable areas, becoming increasingly isolated from one another. This isolation exacerbates the risk of inbreeding within populations (Mace and Lande 1991). In this section an Action Plan is proposed to address the problems faced by mountain tapirs.

I. Geographical Information Systems (G.I.S.), habitat corridors, and strengthening protected areas

G.I. S. is important to monitor trends in habitat destruction so that extensive natural areas under threat can be rescued before they are unknowingly lost. Thomas Bradley (Univ. North Wales, School of Biological Sciences) has proposed doing a computerized overview of appropriate mountain tapir habitats for both former and current populations. This would permit the identification of those areas in greatest threat using a variety of well considered criteria. IUCN has an ongoing program called PRO BONA which is assessing remaining forests and páramos of the Ecuadorian Andes using satellite images and habitat classification. This information can be used to help rescue mountain tapir (PRO BONA 1995). An overview map for Ecuador has been elaborated, showing extensive forests remaining along the eastern Andean cordillera. More detailed evaluation of this information could help to efficiently target efforts to save mountain tapir. This could be incorporated into Bradley's proposal for a geographical overview. One of the most important uses of G.I.S. is identification of existing gaps between protected habitats.

Habitat fragmentation threatens mountain tapir populations. Relinking known refugia through forest and páramo restoration could in-turn restore populations of the mountain tapir throughout its former range. Moreover, establishing habitat corridors between refuges will promote outbreeding among populations, strengthening heterogeneity. Feasible corridors should be identified using G.I.S. gap analyses. PRO BONA (1995) recommends establishing corridors along eastern escarpments. One suitable area for developing restoration methods is the Las Cajas National Recreation Area in central Ecuador, which reportedly contained mountain tapirs in the late 1970s/ early 1980s. Once established, the corridors, like existing reserves, will need sufficient protection.

Establishing adequate protection for those tracts of land already declared reserves is of top priority. If these reserves fail to adequately protect tapirs, further declarations of reserves would not be taken seriously by the people inhabiting them. But if existing reserves can be well protected, newly declared reserves should likewise serve as working protection units. Governments must stand firm in the enforcement of laws which protect these wildlife areas. Colombia has recently acquired a new national constitution with a reportedly strong Ministry of the Environment placing high priority upon wilderness and wildlife, including protection of endangered species (J. Hernandez-Camacho pers. comm. 1991). It is hoped that Ecuador, which is currently in the process of devising a new national constitution, will also stress the preservation of its natural heritage (World Resources Institute 1993, Conservation International 1993). International attention and authority must be focused upon both the needs of the people and the needs of the sanctuaries to accomplish protection. Locals who are already realizing park protection should be allowed to exercise their influence. Rural people must be allowed to convince themselves that a sanctuary or reserve works to their advantage. The ultimate goal is for the people to establish an identity with the park and its wildlife, thus becoming its defenders.

II. On-the-ground monitoring studies to identify status and threats

Precise status information in those regions identified using G.I.S. is critical for saving the mountain tapir and its Andean habitat. Attention can then be given where most urgently needed and allow for planning long-term survival situations for mountain tapir. On-the-ground investigation would pinpoint where mountain tapirs still survive and their current status.

Constantino (in litt.) lists monitoring programs to assess status and trends in remnant Colombian populations as a priority. Specifically, verifying presence of mountain tapir south of Bogota. Additionally, tapirs occurring in Colombia's western Andean cordillera from Los Farallones National Natural Park northward (to 3000m) should be identified to species level. For example, a recent report from the western Andes (north of Los Farallones) indicates that mountain tapir occurs in Tatama National Park, Risaralda state (De Wilde 1994) which is also thought to have Baird's tapir.

III. Designing adequately sized reserves of appropriate habitat

Since the mountain tapir is a large mammal with a large home range it has tremendous capacity as a keystone species. By establishing mountain tapir reserves many other Andean species would be placed under an umbrella of protection. Once feasible areas are identified with G. I.S., and examined on the ground to assess threats and feasibility as reserves, appropriate steps toward reserve design may be initiated.

From telemetric data (1989-1994) an estimation was made of the total area of suitable habitat needed to provide one minimally viable population of roughly 1000 reproductive adults (equal sex ratio) that could survive over the long term (Downer 1995a, 1996, Soulé 1986). Using Kernel analysis (Kenward 1990, Worton 1987, 1989), an estimate of 2935km2 was necessary to insure the long-term survival of a mountain tapir population through adequate preservation of its natural habitat (Boyce 1992). Therefore, each mountain tapir reserve should strive to have at least 3000km2 of contiguous habitat. Those regions in Table 2.1 marked with an X contain at least 3000km2 of contiguous habitat.

Newly established reserves should not have livestock or hunters. Where possible, the majority of habitat in each sanctuary should be composed of forest and should have access to páramo. Though ecotonal forest-páramo habitats are favored by mountain tapirs, core forest is more essential for shelter from storms as well as resting and hiding. Since mountain tapirs dwell along the Andean cordilleras, refuges should assume an elongated form parallel with the Cordilleran crest. For example, an initiative to create an international park in the Cordillera del Condor region should be supported. This would help protect a sizable area which harbors a substantial tapir population.

IV. Educational campaign

A dedicated effort should be made to inform people of the importance of mountain tapir and the nature of threats to its survival, particularly among communities directly affecting tapirs and/or their habitat. This effort should try to eliminate existing threats to these animals and their habitats. This priority would contain the following interrelated endeavors:

A. Mountain tapir conservation proposals
Mountain tapir field research projects have been conducted in Sangay National Park, Ecuador since 1989, and Ucumari Regional Park in Risaralda, Colombia since 1992. These projects should be expanded throughout the range of mountain tapir and should involve an international team of scientists and conservationists. The aim of future studies should be to provide feasible and realistic solutions to threats to tapir populations and habitats. Solutions should be explored and selected by combining the input of local inhabitants, scientists, and conservationists.

1. Environmental education and alternative lifestyles:
(a) Educational projects: Educational programs are urgently needed throughout the Colombian (Constantino in litt.) and Ecuadorian Andes as well as other regions harboring mountain tapirs. Public education projects such as field trips would emphasize concern for rare and endangered species, as well as ecosystem integrity. Facts concerning the mountain tapir's rarity and accelerating disappearance as well as its ecological importance should be presented. For example, the crucial role which tapirs play as a seed dispenser for many important Andean plants could be shown to local people through actual germination experiments.

A film about mountain tapirs and their habitat was recently made in Sangay National Park, Ucumari Regional Park, and other Andean regions. This film documents the variety of threats to mountain tapir and features interviews with local people. Its English version has recently been completed; soon to follow will be Spanish and Quechua versions that can be shown to communities that affect mountain tapir survival. This film should aid the Action Plan by creating consciousness of mountain tapir and their plight at local, national, and international levels. This film should ideally be distributed and broadcast throughout the northern Andes.

(b) Alao and Sangay National Park, Chimborazo, Ecuador:
Guinan (1992) did a study which examined the relationship between the community of Alao and the Sangay National Park. This study focused upon attitudes of Puruhaes Indians and mestizos living in Alao toward mountain tapir and Sangay, as well as developing alternative lifestyles to eliminate threats to the tapir and the park. Guinan (1992) has prepared a proposal through the University College of North Wales, School of Biological Sciences to explore the types of alternative life styles most likely to be successfully adopted by Sangay community residents, including the larger population centers of Baños and Macas. This alternative lifestyle project could involve the Alao community initially as a model, then expand to others.

(c) Ucumari Regional Park, Risaralda, Colombia:
A similar project could be realized in the Ucumari Regional Park area of Risaralda, Colombia, where ongoing studies have established a respectable working relationship with local people (Acosta et al. in press, E. Londoño and H. Gaviria pers. comm. 1995). As in Sangay this could serve as a model to be copied throughout the Los Nevados National Natural Park region of Colombia and elsewhere. Though Los Nevados is currently occupied by cattle ranches, reestablishing its forest and páramo habitats could result in a healthy mountain tapir population. During a recent visit officials of CARDER (Risaralda's natural resource agency) as well as officials of the neighboring states of Caldas and Quindio indicated a willingness to collaborate in an Action Plan to save the mountain tapir (Downer 1995a).

2. Future mountain tapir field studies:
Future studies of wild mountain tapir should focus upon obtaining more direct observations. More information is needed on population structure, dynamics, and social behavior, as well as further information on diet and seed dispersal from geographically diverse areas. Infra-red scopes and blinds at mineral licks or strategic passes could be employed to facilitate direct observation. A Hi-8 camcorder would be valuable to film the tapirs at these sites and could be used in public education campaigns. Detailed studies will give more precise characterization of the mountain tapir, a better understanding of its survival requirements, and expanded public awareness of the species. These studies would also help to achieve a successful translocation program into areas with small populations or where tapirs have been eliminated, such as the El Tama International Park on the Colombia-Venezuela border (see Action IX).

B. Mountain tapir teddies and tapestries
Stuffed animal toys are very popular worldwide. The same can be said of native tapestries depicting indigenous animals in their ecosystems. A manufacturing project that involves native Indians and mestizos would help mountain tapir conservation. Plushlike, furry cotton, or cotton-like fibers from native plants or a blend of materials could be used. These stuffed toys and tapestries would depict Andean animals including mountain tapir, spectacled bear, pacarana (Dinomys branickii), brocket deer (Mazama sp.), pudu, and other animals that share the high Andes.

Classes could be held at a community center to instruct how to make these articles. Markets could be developed both nationally and internationally to sell these tapir teddies and tapestries. Sent to stores in different countries, the stuffed animals would be accompanied by a little booklet explaining where they live, what their current status is, and what the current threats are to their continued survival. This book could be accompanied by sketches of the animals living in their Andean habitat. The sale of these artistic creations would be a source of income for the native families, serving as a way of sparking interest and enthusiasm to save these animals from extinction. Additional proceeds may be used to purchase habitat, develop education programs, and support law enforcement.

C. Learning from our roots: organic gardening of native plants
Organic gardening would involve a mutualistic relationship between local people and the environment they share with mountain tapirs. Cultivation of plants could be encouraged using organic methods and terracing where applicable to restore the lower, eroded parts of the Andes (Uribe 199 1). Such organic gardening projects have been successfully introduced in parts of Ecuador and Costa Rica (C. Rundo pers. comm. 1992).

Plants which could be feasibly cultivated include quinoa (Chenopodium spp., Chenopodiaceae), olluca and oca (tubers), passion fruit (Passifloraceae), squashes (Cucurbitaceae), lupine seeds and beans (Lupinus spp., Fabaceae), white carrots (Apiaceae), blueberries (Vaccinium) and nasturtium (Tropaeolum tuberosum). All of these species and many other useful ones are found in the Andes (Patzelt 1985, Acosta-Solis 1977).

Organic gardening could be done together with sustainable gathering of wild plants. Such plants include mint (Satureja nubigena), sacred Incan tea (Melostomaceae), and a variety of vegetal medicines which are well appreciated by locals. In these projects much emphasis would be given to preserving and restoring vital watersheds upon which all downslope resources depend. Diagrams explaining how this works would prove valuable.

Another possible alternative is cultivating blue-green algae in nutrient-rich Andean lakes. Certain species serve as an excellent Source of protein. The feasibility of marketing this should be investigated. Indeed, ancient Amerindian cultures once harvested and consumed blue-green algae (Patterson and Purnell in litt.).

V. Alternative markets and sustainability

Another priority is the development of alternative markets by building trade in native Andean produce. Greater emphasis upon innovative sustainability and self sufficiency is urgently needed. Public education campaigns need to be launched and followed up by convincing examples of realistic and feasible alternatives. Such examples would enhance cooperative ventures between rural areas and towns, cities, and in some cases international markets.

However, these markets may backfire against sound ecological practice if certain products are in greater demand than their natural production. Current economic forces of cities and/or international markets tend to dictate the type and mode of production in the Andes, coercing people into intensive monocrop cultivation and application of pesticide (Castaño-Uribe 1991). Lacking proper supervision, campesinos use toxic quantities of pesticides to accommodate markets dictated by bankers and agrochemical cartels. Moreover, a heavy consumer demand for animal products results in greater livestock production (Rifkin 1992). These practices devastate the Andean slopes and force the people to occupy higher forests and páramos until there is no more habitat left to utilize, resulting in ecosystem collapse.

VI. Agroforestry

Preserving and restoring biodiversity at all levels is vital to any real solution for the Andean ecological crisis. Andean agroforestry projects should result as a consensus among natives and ecologists about the forest and its wildlife. In the past Andean agroforestry has utilized non-native trees such as pine and Eucalyptus which dry out and toxify the soil (Castaño-Uribe 1991). Though initially resistant to native plagues, these monocrop tree plantations succumb to new plagues in epidemic scale. This has occurred among the vast pine plantations in Cotopaxi National Park, Ecuador. Agroforestry should emphasize cultivation of trees native to the northern Andes such as Cedrella and Podocarpus which are utilized for lumber and furniture. Trees should be re-established through soil preparation and planting by local people while allowing natural succession to achieve a mutualistic balance among species. The complementary and well proportioned assemblage of tree species would support native Andean wildlife (A. Carvajal pers. comm.).

VII. Monitoring species sympatric with mountain tapir

Simultaneous with monitoring mountain tapir, it would be appropriate to monitor sympatric species which also live in the high Andes. The endangered spectacled bear should be monitored simultaneously with status surveys of mountain tapir (J. Jorgensen, B. Peyton pers. comm. 1994). The pacarana is also sympatric with mountain tapir; this rodent is quite rare and needs better monitoring. Also, North American migrants wintering in regions sympatric with tapirs include the cerulean warbler (Dendroica cerulea) and olive-sided flycatcher (Nuttallornis borealis). The significant decrease of migrants serves as a bioindicator of the accelerating destruction of vital habitats. For example, the total population of cerulean warblers was estimated to have dropped 50% since the 1960s, largely due to habitat destruction. (Anon. 1994).

VIII. Ecotourism projects aimed at saving the mountain tapir

Ecotourism would encourage local people to become tapir guardians and tour guides. By entering into contractual agreements with the government to act as guardians and guides, qualified local people would derive economic benefit from mountain tapirs, both from government subsidy and tourist revenue. Additionally ecotourism would allow different Andean tribes such as the Puruhaes and Shuar (Jivaro) to share their unique cultural heritage, including their knowledge of native fauna and flora. Perhaps these tribes in conjunction with local haciendas could develop tourist hostels of two classes: one more luxurious and the other more rustic. As in other Andean areas such as the Taquile islands of Lake Titicaca, Peru-Bolivia, tourists could be accommodated in native huts and interact directly with the local Indians or mestizos. Other features such as the spectacular Sangay Volcano, among the world's most active, would attract international tourists if properly promoted through posters and brochures.

Organizations committed to ecotourism and the protection of wilderness and wildlife could be involved, particularly at the onset of a project when expert advice is needed. The primary benefits would go to the wilderness, its wildlife, and the local people who form part of this ecosystem. Tourist visits would have to be limited by rotating among widely separated areas having tapirs. This would prevent disturbing a given population of tapirs while maintaining public vigilance for their well being. Biologists could assist ecotourism projects by recommending ecologically compatible guidelines.

IX. Translocations

Translocations of mountain tapir to safe regions void of tapirs should be investigated. This is important to establish tapirs throughout their former distribution, and to prevent inbreeding by infusing additional founders into small and/or isolated populations (Soulé 1986). Such translocations should adhere to guidelines outlined by the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group (1995).

Introduction to suitable habitats could be adult male-female pairs. In addition, young adult or subadult tapirs of equal sex could be used since young adults might have a higher survivorship than older adults (Brooks in litt.).

Tapirs that are being displaced from suitable habitat could be translocated to more suitable regions. For example, this is occurring in the Cordillera del Condor region, Peru-Ecuador due to widespread colonization and the recent war between these countries. Translocation should only be used after every effort to prevent habitat depletion has been exhausted. Tapirs could be safely translocated to more secure habitats which are unoccupied or underpopulated. These habitats would be as similar and geographically close to their original homes as possible.

Alternatively, in cases where tapir populations are sufficient to sustain the loss of one to a few pairs at a time, the possibility of translocations into different regions could be examined to supplement existing isolated populations with additional stock. Several potential sources of tapir have been identified in different regions, subject to more careful evaluation of remnant populations. The Chingaza Ecological Reserve could be the source for repopulating northwestern Venezuela and Colombia's eastern cordillera, Ucumari Regional Park region and Purace National Park for repopulating Colombia's central cordillera, Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve for repopulating southern Colombia and northern Ecuador, the Sangay National Park region for repopulating central Ecuador, and Podocarpus National Park region for repopulating southern Ecuador and northern Peru.

X. Captive breeding programs

In the past, attempts to maintain and breed the mountain tapir in captivity have not worked (Schauenberg 1969, El Comercio 1994). Captive mountain tapirs often contracted diseases from humans or domesticated animals, subsequently dying of pulmonary infection or digestive collapse (Crandall 1964, Schauenberg 1969, Frädrich and Thenius 1968, El Comercio 1994, W. Thomas pers. comm. 1990). Recently captive breeding of this species has been successful in modern institutions with accomplished veterinary staff (Barongi in litt.).

The possibility of a carefully planned and monitored captive breeding program could be entertained. However, it is doubtful that captive bred tapirs would survive once released (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981). For example, conditioning captive bred tapirs to recognize humans as hunters poses a serious obstacle. The value of captive animals for education to local people within the mountain tapirs range should be explored, particularly in Quito, Baños, Cali, Pasto, and other Andean cities (Grajal in litt.).

Malayan tapir


CITATION:
Brooks, Daniel M.; Bodmer, Richard E.; Matola, Sharon (compilers). 1997. Tapirs - Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. (English, Spanish, Portuguese.) IUCN/SSC Tapir Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. viii + 164 pp.
Online version: http://www.tapirback.com/tapirgal/iucn-ssc/tsg/action97/cover.htm

Copyright © 1997 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

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